Repeated subcutaneous administrations of krokodil causes skin necrosis and internal organs toxicity in Wistar rats: putative human implications.

Abstract

OBJECTIVE:

"Krokodil" is the street name for an impure homemade drug mixture used as a cheap substitute for heroin, containing desomorphine as the main opioid. Abscesses, gangrene, thrombophlebitis, limb ulceration and amputations, jaw osteonecrosis, skin discoloration, ulcers, skin infections, and bleeding are some of the typical reported signs in humans. This study aimed to understand the toxicity of krokodil using Wistar male rats as experimental model.

METHODS:

Animals were divided into seven groups and exposed subcutaneously to NaCl 0.9% (control), krokodil mixture free of psychotropic substances (blank krokodil), pharmaceutical grade desomorphine 1 mg/kg, and four different concentrations of krokodil (containing 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, and 1 mg/kg of desomorphine) synthesized accordingly to a "domestic" protocol followed by people who inject krokodil (PWIK). Daily injections for five consecutive days were performed, and animals were sacrificed 24 hr after the last administration. Biochemical and histological analysis were carried out.

RESULTS:

It was shown that the continuous use of krokodil may cause injury at the injection area, with formation of necrotic zones. The biochemical results evidenced alterations on cardiac and renal biomarkers of toxicity, namely, creatine kinase, creatine kinase-MB, and uric acid. Significant alteration in levels of reduced and oxidized glutathione on kidney and heart suggested that oxidative stress may be involved in krokodil-mediated toxicity. Cardiac congestion was the most relevant finding of continuous krokodil administration.

CONCLUSIONS:

These findings contribute notably to comprehension of the local and systemic toxicological impact of this complex drug mixture on major organs and will hopefully be useful for the development of appropriate treatment strategies towards the human toxicological effects of krokodil.

• Authors: Emanuele Amorim Alves, Pedro Brandão, João Filipe Neves, Sara Manuela Cravo, José Xavier Soares, Jean-Paul C Grund, José Alberto Duarte, Carlos M M Afonso, Annibal Duarte Pereira Netto, Félix Carvalho, Ricardo Jorge Dinis-Oliveira
• Journal: Human psychopharmacology (Hum Psychopharmacol) Vol. 32 Issue 3 (05 2017) ISSN: 1099-1077 [Electronic] England
• PMID: 28657190 (Publication Type: Journal Article)
• Copyright: Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Chemical References

• Analgesics, Opioid
• Illicit Drugs
• desomorphine
• Codeine

Topics

• Analgesics, Opioid (administration & dosage, toxicity)
• Animals
• Codeine (administration & dosage, analogs & derivatives, toxicity)
• Heart (drug effects)
• Humans
• Illicit Drugs (toxicity)
• Injections, Subcutaneous
• Kidney (drug effects, pathology)
• Liver (drug effects, pathology)
• Lung (drug effects, pathology)
• Male
• Necrosis (chemically induced, pathology)
• Organ Size (drug effects, physiology)
• Oxidative Stress (drug effects, physiology)
• Rats
• Rats, Wistar
• Skin Diseases (chemically induced, pathology)
• Tissue Distribution (drug effects, physiology)