We report within-host evolution of antibiotic resistance to
trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and
azithromycin in a nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae strain from a patient with
common variable immunodeficiency (CVID), who received repeated or prolonged treatment with these
antibiotics for recurrent
respiratory tract infections. Whole-genome sequencing of three longitudinally collected sputum isolates during the period April 2016 to January 2018 revealed persistence of a strain of sequence type 2386. Reduced susceptibility to
trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole in the first two isolates was associated with mutations in genes encoding
dihydrofolate reductase (folA) and its promotor region,
dihydropteroate synthase (folP), and
thymidylate synthase (thyA), while subsequent substitution of a single
amino acid in
dihydropteroate synthase (G225A) rendered high-level resistance in the third isolate from 2018.
Azithromycin co-resistance in this isolate was associated with amino acid substitutions in 50S
ribosomal proteins L4 (W59R) and L22 (G91D), possibly aided by a substitution in AcrB (A604E) of the AcrAB efflux pump. All three isolates were resistant to aminopenicillins and
cefotaxime due to TEM-1B
beta-lactamase and identical alterations in
penicillin-binding protein 3. Further resistance development to
trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and
azithromycin resulted in a multidrug-resistant phenotype. Evolution of multidrug resistance due to horizontal gene transfer and/or spontaneous mutations, along with selection of resistant subpopulations is a particular risk in CVID and other patients requiring repeated and prolonged
antibiotic treatment or prophylaxis. Such challenging situations call for careful antibiotic stewardship together with supportive and supplementary treatment. We describe the clinical and microbiological course of events in this case report and address the challenges encountered.