Cadmium (Cd(2+)) is a non-essential
heavy metal, which is taken up from the environment into the body through pulmonary and enteral pathways. The S1 segment of the kidney proximal tubule (PT) is a major target of chronic Cd(2+) toxicity. Renal dysfunction develops in up to 7% of the general population and in its most severe form displays major features of
Fanconi syndrome, such as a defective
protein,
amino acid,
glucose,
bicarbonate and
phosphate reabsorption. The major pathway for Cd(2+) uptake by PT cells (PTCs) in vivo is apical endocytosis of Cd(2+) complexed to the high-affinity
metal-
binding protein metallothionein (MT), which may be receptor-mediated. MT is subsequently degraded in endo-lysosomes, and Cd(2+) is liberated for translocation into the cytosolic compartment, possibly using transporters for Fe(2+), Zn(2+) or Cu(2+), such as the divalent
metal transporter DMT1. Free Cd(2+)
ions in the extracellular space are translocated across apical and/or basolateral PTC membranes into the cytosol via transporters, whose identity remains unknown. Cytosolic Cd(2+) generates
reactive oxygen species (ROS), which deplete endogenous radical scavengers. ROS also damage a variety of
transport proteins, including the Na(+)/K(+)-
ATPase, which are subsequently degraded by the
proteasome and endo-lysosomal
proteases. Cd(2+) causes mitochondrial swelling and release of
cytochrome C. If these ROS-mediated stress events are not balanced by repair processes, affected cells undergo apoptosis. But Cd(2+) also induces the upregulation of cytoprotective stress and
metal-scavenging
proteins, such as MT. In addition, Cd(2+) upregulates the detoxifying pump multidrug resistance
P-glycoprotein, which appears to protect PTCs against Cd(2+)-induced apoptosis. Thus, Cd(2+) interferes with various cellular events ranging from mechanisms of induction of programmed cell death to activation of cell survival genes. A better understanding of the cellular mechanisms involved in Cd(2+) nephrotoxicity should provide insights into other
heavy metal (e.g. Pb(2+), Hg(2+)) nephropathies and various forms of acquired
Fanconi syndrome.