Epidemiologic evidence on the relation between exposure to metals and
cancer is reviewed. Human exposure to metals is common, with wide use in industry and long-term environmental persistence. Historically, the heaviest
metal exposures occurred in the workplace or in environmental settings in close proximity to industrial sources. Among the general population, exposure to a number of metals is widespread but generally at substantially lower levels than have been found in industry. The carcinogenicity of
arsenic,
chromium, and
nickel has been established. Occupational and environmental
arsenic exposure is linked to increased
lung cancer risk in humans, although experimental studies remain inconclusive. Experimental studies clearly demonstrate the malignant potential of hexavalent(VI)
chromium compounds, with solubility being an important determining factor. Epidemiologic studies of workers in
chromium chemical production and use link exposure to lung and
nasal cancer. Experimental and epidemiologic data show that sparingly-soluble
nickel compounds and possibly also the soluble compounds are
carcinogens linked to lung and
nasal cancer in humans. Some experimental and epidemiologic studies suggest that lead may be a human
carcinogen, but the evidence is inconclusive. Although epidemiologic data are less extensive for
beryllium and
cadmium, the findings in humans of excess
cancer risk are supported by the clear demonstration of carcinogenicity in experimental studies. Other metals, including
antimony and
cobalt, may be human
carcinogens, but the experimental and epidemiologic data are limited.