Typhoid Fever (Typhoid)

An acute systemic febrile infection caused by SALMONELLA TYPHI, a serotype of SALMONELLA ENTERICA.

Also Known As:

Typhoid; Enteric Fever; Salmonella typhi Infection; Abdominal Typhus; Enteric Fevers; Fever, Enteric; Fever, Typhoid; Fevers, Enteric; Fevers, Typhoid; Infection, Salmonella typhi; Infections, Salmonella typhi; Salmonella typhi Infections; Typhoid Fevers; Typhoids; Typhus, Abdominal

Networked: 5142 relevant articles (355 outcomes, 523 trials/studies)

Relationship Network

Disease Context: Research Results

Infections: 526564
- Bacterial Infections and Mycoses: 1
  - Bacterial Infections: 24368
    - Gram-Negative Bacterial Infections: 918
      - Enterobacteriaceae Infections: 141
        Salmonella Infections: 2535
        Typhoid Fever: 5142

Related Diseases

1.	Infections
2.	Typhoid Fever (Typhoid)
3.	Salmonella Infections (Salmonellosis)
4.	Bacillary Dysentery (Shigellosis)
5.	Fever (Fevers)

Experts

1.	Baker, Stephen: 73 articles (12/2021 - 05/2010)
2.	Pollard, Andrew J: 57 articles (11/2022 - 06/2007)
3.	Clemens, John D: 44 articles (11/2022 - 12/2002)
4.	Basnyat, Buddha: 43 articles (11/2022 - 01/2004)
5.	Dougan, Gordon: 40 articles (01/2022 - 03/2002)
6.	Qadri, Firdausi: 32 articles (11/2022 - 09/2006)
7.	Parry, Christopher M: 32 articles (01/2021 - 03/2004)
8.	Marks, Florian: 29 articles (11/2022 - 02/2014)
9.	Levine, Myron M: 29 articles (01/2022 - 01/2003)
10.	Crump, John A: 28 articles (01/2022 - 03/2004)

Drugs and Biologics

Drugs and Important Biological Agents (IBA) related to Typhoid Fever:

1.	VaccinesIBA 12/01/2023 - "The World Health Organization has prequalified two vaccines that are highly effective in preventing typhoid fever and may also help limit the emergence and spread of resistant Typhi. " 03/01/2023 - "Developed nations have successfully addressed and controlled typhoid fever via improvement in accessing safe water and food, better sanitary and hygienic behaviours, and vaccines development. " 11/01/2022 - "Vaccines with high levels of protective effects against fowl typhoid need to be developed for the poultry industry. " 07/01/2004 - "The 3 batches of the combined typhoid fever/HAV vaccine administered by dual-chamber bypass syringe were equally well tolerated and effective in healthy adults, and did not differ significantly in terms of GMTs or seroconversion rates." 01/01/2020 - "The findings suggest that analyses of the entire cluster may have led to underestimation of herd protection against typhoid by Vi vaccine and that restriction of the analyses to the inner subclusters may have led to a more accurate estimation of vaccine herd effects."
2.	Chloramphenicol (Chloromycetin)FDA Link 01/01/1993 - "Hence chloramphenicol still remains the drug of first choice in enteric fever as a majority (68.4%--26 out of 38) of our bacteriologically proven enteric fever patients were cured by the drug. " 01/01/1982 - "Chloramphenicol is still very effective for acute enteric fever. " 03/01/1992 - "Plasma trough and peak chloramphenicol concentrations were measured by HPLC analysis after 42 hrs. The 50 mg/kg/day dosage schedule was terminated midway through the study, as blood levels were consistently low and two patients with typhoid relapsed, children with typhoid had significantly lower clearance of CS in comparison with those with non-typhoidal illness (0.29 +/- 0.1 versus 0.5 +/- 0.37 1/kg/hr, P 0.05). " 12/01/1995 - "Chloramphenicol has remained clinically an effective treatment for enteric fever, despite the high prevalence of in vitro resistance, and should remain the drug of choice. " 04/01/2004 - "Chloramphenicol is still effective for typhoid fever. "
3.	Conjugate VaccinesIBA 01/01/2020 - "India remains one of the highest typhoid disease burden countries, although a highly efficacious typhoid conjugate vaccine (TCV), prequalified by the World Health Organization in 2017, has been available since 2013. " 11/10/2018 - "Typhoid Vi conjugate vaccines would be highly cost-effective in low-income countries in settings of moderate typhoid incidence (50 cases/100000 annually). " 10/01/2002 - "A new conjugate vaccine was found to be very effective in preventing typhoid fever in young Vietnamese children and was well tolerated, showing great promise for the future. " 05/01/2023 - "Topics covered include diagnostics advancements, improved data methodologies for a better understanding of the disease burden, the incorporation of environmental surveillance and genomics, the threat of drug resistance, and the use of typhoid conjugate vaccines alongside other integrated solutions." 01/01/2023 - "The typhoid conjugate vaccine is a safe and effective method for preventing Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (typhoid) and the WHO's guidance supports its use in locations with ongoing transmission. "
4.	Ciprofloxacin (Cipro)FDA LinkGeneric 10/01/2006 - "Typhi strain which demonstrated high-level ciprofloxacin resistance with a MIC of 16 mug/ml. A knowledge of the seasonal distribution and antibiotic resistance pattern of Salmonella in a particular geographical region is helpful in the delineation of appropriate control measures required for prevention of enteric fever." 01/01/1992 - "There were no significant adverse effects indicating that ciprofloxacin is safe and effective drug for resistant and nonresistant cases of typhoid fever." 05/01/1989 - "Ciprofloxacin is an effective agent for the treatment of enteric fever." 01/01/1993 - "Ciprofloxacin proved to be a safe and effective drug for the treatment of multidrug resistant enteric fever." 03/01/2011 - "Mucoadhesive nanosuspension of ciprofloxacin was designed in order to improve the solubility, bioavailability and efficacy for the treatment of typhoid fever. "
5.	Polysaccharides (Glycans)IBA 03/01/1975 - "A study was made of dynamics of the content of colony-forming units (CFU) in the spleen and the bone marrow of the nonirradiated F1 (CBA times C57BL) mice to which polysaccharide (PS) from typhoid bacilli was administered. " 05/15/2023 - "Bifunctionalized nanobioprobe based rapid color-shift assay for typhoid targeting Vi capsular polysaccharide." 08/01/2022 - "Salmonellacidal antibody response to Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi in enteric fever and after vaccination with Vi capsular polysaccharide." 01/01/2022 - "Here, we show that the two delivery subunits can form only homopentameric delivery platforms that compete to associate with typhoid toxin's active subunits and that the two resulting toxins have distinct glycan-binding properties that confer distinct functional traits. " 01/01/2022 - "Typhoid toxin consists of a pentameric delivery B subunit to transport the catalytic A subunits into the host cell through binding of the glycan receptors. "
6.	AntigensIBA 01/01/2018 - "This approach has yielded 5 designs with high binding affinity against TolC that may be beneficial for the future development of antigen-based detection agents for typhoid diagnostics." 09/01/1972 - "[Study on chimpanzees on the efficacy of an oral typhoid immunization with an inactivated antigen]." 01/01/2012 - "Here, we tested 37 broadly conserved Salmonella antigens in a mouse typhoid fever model, and identified antigen candidates that conferred partial protection against lethal disease. " 04/01/2011 - "Studies on the structure of this antigen are important to elucidate its function, which will in turn increase the efficiency of the development and improvement of the typhoid detection test. " 05/01/1994 - "Because 375 strains tested in this study were collected from cases with typhoid fever in different regions of Korea during the period from 1986 to 1991, it could be concluded that the mutation rate to j antigen is negligible among S. "
7.	Ofloxacin (Ofloxacine)FDA LinkGeneric 04/01/1995 - "A 3-day course of ofloxacin proved to be safe and highly effective in the treatment of uncomplicated, multidrug-resistant typhoid fever." 09/01/1994 - "Ofloxacin was found to be well tolerated and effective in treating typhoid fever." 01/01/1990 - "Ofloxacin was well tolerated and appears to be an effective agent in the treatment of typhoid fever." 01/01/1988 - "Ofloxacin was particularly effective in the treatment of enteric fever in 35 patients; eradication was achieved in all of them; 34 patients were clinically cured within 4 days, however, one patient with bacteraemia due to Salmonella paratyphi A subsequently died, due to his underlying disorder. " 01/01/1986 - "Ofloxacin was also effective in the treatment of enteric fever, in which eradication was achieved in all seven patients. "
8.	Anti-Bacterial Agents (Antibiotics)IBA 10/15/2019 - "Although high-income countries pioneered 1960s precautionary antibiotic regulations to prevent selection for multidrug resistance, new antibiotic classes, typhoid's cultural status as a supposedly ancient disease of "undeveloped" countries, limited international funding, and narrow biosecurity agendas helped fragment effective global collective action for typhoid control. " 06/01/2022 - "Although appropriate antibiotics are the mainstay of treatment for typhoid fever, physicians should be mindful that surgical consultation may be necessary in certain cases." 08/01/2023 - "These lead compounds may help to develop new antibiotics for antibiotic-resistant Salmonella typhi and improve typhoid fever treatment. " 01/01/2018 - "Antibiotic susceptibility test is necessary in patients with typhoid fever for improved patient management." 10/01/2010 - "Public health interventions to minimize human carrier contact, improved personal hygienic measures including health care behavior strategies, typhoid vaccination and rational antibiotic selection based on sensitivity pattern to prevent resistance will help to reduce the morbidity and mortality of this global health problem."
9.	Typhoid-Paratyphoid Vaccines (Typhoid Vaccines)FDA Link 01/01/2014 - "A major obstacle in the development of improved typhoid, as well as paratyphoid vaccines is the lack of known immunological correlates of protection in humans. " 02/01/1990 - "Typhoid vaccine efficacy for tourists was calculated and showed an overall protective rate of 90% against enteric fever in general, 95% protection against S typhi, and 72% to 75% protection against S paratyphi A. " 01/01/2018 - "Given the limitations of typhoid vaccines, we surmise the practical elimination of typhoid was largely driven by economic development and improvement in general population living standards. " 03/01/1973 - "Protection Against Meningococcal Challenge Afforded Mice After Immunization with Typhoid-Paratyphoid Vaccine USP." 01/01/2018 - "Here, we describe differences in the composition and function of the gut microbiota in healthy adult volunteers enrolled in a typhoid vaccine trial and report that these differences are associated with host susceptibility to or protection from typhoid after challenge with wild-type S Typhi. "
10.	Ceftriaxone (Ceftriaxon)FDA LinkGeneric 11/24/2022 - "Based on very low- to low-certainty evidence, ceftriaxone is an effective treatment for adults and children with enteric fever, with few adverse effects. " 04/01/2015 - "Blood culture confirmed the diagnosis of typhoid and the patient was treated successfully with ceftriaxone. " 02/01/1995 - "These results extend previous observations on the efficacy of ceftriaxone in short courses for both adults and children with typhoid fever." 05/01/2016 - "Additionally, under our study conditions, ceftriaxone was suboptimum in a high proportion of patients with culture-negative enteric fever. " 11/01/1991 - "This study suggests that a short treatment of three days of typhoid fever with ceftriaxone (3 or 4 g once daily) is adequate and not hazardous as far as relapses are concerned."

Therapies and Procedures

1.	Therapeutics 08/01/1989 - "Its high bioavailability, satisfactory therapeutic efficacy excellent tolerability and convenience for use make it a very useful medication in the therapy of typhoid fever resulted from multiresistant strains." 01/01/1979 - "The diagnostic efficacy of bone-marrow culture, serial blood cultures and agglutination tests was compared in a prospective study of 60 patients with typhoid fever, two thirds of whom had received prior antibacterial therapy. " 11/01/1902 - "A Notable Improvement in the Therapy of Typhoid Fever." 03/01/2005 - "After an extensive FUO workup, when typhoid fever is a likely diagnostic possibility, an empiric trial of anti- Salmonella therapy has diagnostic and therapeutic significance. " 06/01/1966 - "[The role of microbiologic studies in the evaluation of the results of therapy for typhoid-paratyphoid bacterial carriers]."
2.	Injections 03/01/2008 - "This study was undertaken to establish whether the Onderstepoort Biological Products Fowl Typhoid (OBPft) vaccine registered as an injectable vaccine was effective and safe when administered orally to commercial layers. " 07/01/2011 - "In this study, levofloxacin was found to be the most effective drug in both oral and injectable form in one-week treatment of uncomplicated typhoid." 01/01/1971 - "The number of injections in primary immunization and postvaccination immunity from the results of controlled field trials with typhoid and paratyphoid B vaccines." 01/01/2021 - "An injectable typhoid conjugate vaccine (TCV) provides longer-lasting protection, requires fewer doses, and is suitable for children aged >2 years. " 11/01/2004 - "A vaccine for typhoid is now available in either oral or injectable versions. "
3.	Ileostomy 10/01/2021 - "Our study shows safety, feasibility and efficacy of ghost ileostomy in selected patients with typhoid ileal perforations, thus avoiding loop ileostomy in one-third of patients." 10/01/2021 - "Thus, we were prompted to conduct a prospective observational study on the safety, feasibility and efficacy of ghost ileostomy in typhoid ileal perforations. " 10/01/2021 - "Feasibility and efficacy of ghost ileostomy in typhoid ileal perforations: A prospective observational study." 06/01/2010 - "The purpose of this report is to evaluate the efficacy of primary ileostomy for treatment of typhoid-related ileal perforation based on our experience. " 10/01/2021 - "Loop ileostomy is commonly performed for typhoid ileal perforations as temporary faecal diversion. "
4.	Conservative Treatment 03/01/1982 - "Although better conservative management has significantly reduced the mortality of typhoid perforation, early limited surgery is most important if good results are to be obtained." 07/01/1956 - "[Typhoid perforation cured by conservative therapy]." 09/01/1978 - "Typhoid perforation is a surgical emergency and the treatment should be prompt and energetic; the role of conservative treatment is limited. " 01/01/1975 - "Prospects of conservative treatment of typhoid bacilli carriers." 12/01/1957 - "[Conservative therapy of typhoid carriers; therapeutic suggestion]."
5.	Blood Transfusion (Blood Transfusions) 08/11/1948 - "Severe abdominal typhus cured with convalescent blood transfusions." 12/01/1963 - "[BLOOD TRANSFUSION IN COMBINED TREATMENT OF PATIENTS WITH SEVERE FORMS OF TYPHOID]." 03/01/1959 - "[Blood transfusion in prevention of recurrent typhoid-paratyphoid diseases]." 01/31/1958 - "[Results of treatment of individuals eliminating typhoid and paratyphoid bacteria with chloromycetin and blood transfusions]." 09/01/1948 - "Experiences in the treatment of abdominal typhoid with pyrifer and blood transfusions."